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SOCIO-ECONOMIC
RELATIONS |
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As a result of
long-lasting processes the feudal relations had consolidated
in the socio-economic structure of the early feudal Old
Russian state. Their significant manifestation was in the
stratification of the society into two social classes:
feudal landowners and subordinated yeomen, among whom one
can distinguish several categories. The basis for the feudal
class was made first of all of the Rurikoviches' princes;
since the times of Svyatoslav the ruling prince used to give
them appanages yet during his reign, but after the death of
Yaroslav the Wise, as the feudal particularism deepened, |
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they became
the rulers of more and more separate fiefdoms. The main
supporters of the princes' power were noble landowners - the
boyars - who originated as a rule from the princes' band. The
boyars used to subordinate yeomen living and working in the
neighbouring boroughs, and often grabbed their lands. Also the
Church, or rather its hierarchy, participated in abusing the
yeomen. The early
feudal monarchy of the first Rurikoviches still had quite
simple statehood forms. The ruling prince used to appoint a
court council of the most noble of the members of his band.
The band as such remained the main instrument of the princes'
power, both military and administrative. The prince stood in
van of the band during the military expeditions; members of
the band used to collect tributes from the population, judge
in court cases and decide about other questions of the state
authority. With time some members of the band became big
landowners, although as a rule appanages were given to many.
By the first call of the Kievan prince the armed troops of the
appanage princes and boyars had to be at his service. Finally,
under his rule there were cities, controlled by his governors
- posadniks.
The yeomen,
or smerds, were originally free members of the boroughs and
their only duty was to pay tributes to the prince. As the
feudal relations had evolved, also the process of enslavement
of the yeomen had evolved. Their lands were often grabbed
under more or less justified pretexts; if yeomen died
childless, their lands automatically became the property of
the prince according to the law of escheat that was widely
known in Rus too. Any legal resistance to the abuse was out of
question, the more so that the landowners exercised in their
realms both judicial and executive powers, and enforced them
with their own armed bands. And since their maintenance
required more and more means, especially more stocks of the
agricultural production, the yeomen' abuse flourished. They
paid tributes to the boyars or delivered services in their
manors; both forms of the feudal dependency after all often
interleaved. Also, the scale of the process of enslavement of
once free yeomen was not identical in all the Russian lands -
the new social relations achieved the biggest momentum in the
economically best developed central and southern regions.
Tenancy
(so-called zakupy) became one of the forms of the feudal
disenfranchisement. Smerds, who for some reasons found
themselves in helpless situations, under the threat of
bankruptcy were forced to turn to the boyars for help, and as
a rule would obtain cattle, inventory or monies in return for
levies or services. Tenants could become free yeomen again
after paying twosome due, which was not easy at all, and so
tenancy was a sure way to become a lasting dependency. There
were plenty of ways to do so.
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A bankrupt
smerd, or even a city dweller, could even sell himself to a
boyar for money. The situation of such people would become
completely helpless, because they would be lowered to the
level of slaves - the kholops. A kholop could be even killed
without any legal consequences. Yet the kholop labour never
had any significant meaning in Russia. With time kholops were
even given land parcels in return for labour and other feudal
dues; this of course to some extent improved their situation.
On the other hand the influx of the slaves persisted over a
considerable period of time, as they were brought from
numerous military expeditions. Also captured fugitive tenants
could be turned slaves.
Development
of the trades had constantly elevated the significance of the
Russian cities, especially the biggest ones like Kiev,
Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov or Polotsk. Obviously, together
with their economic significance, also grew their importance
from the military, political and cultural point of view. Every
city had defended its central part - the grad - with walls and
towers; every one had built churches or cathedrals, princes'
and boyars' chambers, and craftsmen's workshops. Every city
surely had markets, which focused the economic life. Wooden
constructions dominated. Princes and boyars made extensive use
of craftsmen's and merchants' labour as well as services, very
much burdening, that were imposed on them. Another
characteristic factor of the development of the urban
relations was the inevitable economic stratification of the
city dwellers, which often led to riots and uprisings of the
city poor. Just like the more and more abused yeomen used to
rise against their landlords.
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M. Arushev |
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