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and Oleg became
the ruler of the whole Dnieper basin, upper and lower. Some
reminiscences of those events had apparently survived in the
popular memory, since one of the hills around Kiev for
centuries used to be called the Askold's Grave. The same name
was given to the opera composed in 1835 by the composer Alexei
Verstovskiy.
The
taking of Kiev did not put the end to the expeditions of Oleg,
who had also subordinated the Severians and Radimiches, and in
the west also the Derevlians. He had also undertaken a number
of expeditions against the Khazars, having freed some Slavic
tribes (for example the Severians) from the tributes paid to
the Khazars. The struggle with the Khazars was long and bloody,
and many expeditions against them were undertaken in
retaliation for the Khazars' devastating raids into the
Russian lands. Such was the severe reality of those times, and
this is how the poet Alexander Pushkin embodied it in his
famous poem The Song of Prince Oleg:
Oleg, the wise
Prince, again rose to arm,
And cried: "Vengeance on the ruthless horde
Of raiding Chosars! Their field and farm
My men shall put to fire and sword!"
(Transl.
Alexander Morozov)
Finally,
Oleg undertook expeditions against the tribes living along the
Bug and Dniester - Dulebians, Uliches and Tivercians. The
struggle with them lasted a dozen of years with changing
successes. The full union of the territories inhabited by the
East Slavs did not appear possible yet, but it does not change
the fact that Oleg had achieved the most of his goals, and
since then one can speak about existence of the Old Russian
state or - since the fall of Kiev in 882 - Kievan Rus. To
Oleg's purposeful and consequent policy, also testifies the
fact that at the end of his reign he undertook an expedition
to Byzantium. Before it happened, he controlled the entire
route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" - along
the Volkhov, Lovat and Dnieper. Although Oleg's band consisted
of representatives of different peoples, it represented a
considerable power and combat experience from the earlier
expeditions. Subordinated tribes paid them tributes, almost
entirely in goods (furs, honey or wax), and soldiers
participated in booties and tributes. So, they were growing
rich and willingly participated in military expeditions. They
also had goods for trade; Constantinople used to buy Russian
goods, and constant and mutually profitable contacts had
already been maintained, although we do not know details.
According
to the Tale of Bygone Years, Oleg went on Constantinople in
907. Some othersources name the year 911 - opinions differ in
this matter, but most historians are inclined towards the
first date. The expedition resulted in a great success: the
emperor Leo VI Philosopher (886-912) agreed to pay a hefty
ransom, and moreover, the first trade treaty in the history of
Kievan Rus was signed. The Tale of Bygone Years brought us its
text, unfortunately incomplete, and that is why the historical
sciences still encounter interpretation problems concerning
its clauses. For sure it is known that both sides had
guaranteed each other certain privileges and removed some
controversial problems in bi-lateral relations. For example,
both sides had agreed how would, in future, ransom payments be
arranged or how each of the sides would react to trespasses of
the other side's merchants.
This
way Oleg's heir and probable Rurik's son, Igor (912-945),
assumed the rule over the country that had established
peaceful and friendly relations with its rich and mighty
neighbour. Nevertheless the new prince did not abandon
thoughts about new expeditions against Byzantium, although he
undertook them late in his reign (twice, in 941 and 944). They
failed though, in witness whereof another treaty concluded in
944 (according to some sources - in 945). By this treaty
Russian merchants had lost a substantial amount of privileges
they enjoyed so far: upon arrival to Constantinople they were
not allowed to stay there longer than a certain date and they
were not allowed to bring any goods in unlimited quantities.
Kievan princes were also obliged to provide Byzantine emperors
with military aid and renounce claims to the Byzantine
possessions in the Crimea. Other clauses of the treaty
confirmed earlier agreements and mutual relations continued to
develop peacefully, although not long.
During
Igor's reign Kievan Rus extended its sovereignty over the
territories of the Uliches and Tivercians. There was also an
expedition undertaken to the Caspian Sea and farther along its
western shores southward, to the ancient city of Barda, which
was taken in 943. At the same time began a difficult to Russia
three-century long period of struggle with southern nomads,
first with the Pechenegs, and since the mid-11th century with
the Polovtsi. The
Pechenegs habitats originally were located between the lower
Volga and the Lake Aral. At the end of the 9th century the
Pechenegs crossed the Volga and moved westward, having
dislodged the Hungarians wandering on the lower Don and Donets.
In the 10th century their habitat stretched from the Don to
the Southern Bug and in a wide strip north of the Khazar
possessions. First clashes between the Pechenegs and Russians
were not sinister yet, and there was even a treaty concluded,
in which each side swore not to fight the other side.
Igor
had far more troubles with the tribe of the Derevlians, who
resisted the rule of Kiev. Any manifestations of the
resistance, like uprisings, of course were suppressed, but
eventually Igor found his end right in the land of the
Derevlians. The system pf the princes' rule in the early
feudal Russian state was based on military expeditions and
tributes collected from subjugated tribes, Slavic and
non-Slavic alike. Even if the prince personally was not a
warlike individual, he anyway spent a lot of time with the
army, and if there were no wars, together with his band he
rode across his realm, solving various problems, collecting
tributes and being fed by local population. Such rides were
called poludye; the word goes back to the expression khodit'
po ludyam - "ride the people", and with time lent
the name to the tribute itself. The revenue had never been
exactly defined; at that time it was not practically possible,
but perfectly fed arbitrariness. In 945 even an excessive
tribute taken from the Derevlians did not satisfy Igor, who
first left, but later changed his mind and came back to meet
his fate. As he demanded a new tribute, he provoked a riot,
during which he was killed.
It
may be accepted that the prince's death was not planned -
after all in such a case one could expect a cruel revenge and
more misfortunes. It seems that the Derevlians eventually came
to such a conclusion, but too late, after the tragedy happened.
However, in an attempt to undo what happened, the Derevlians
sent envoys to Igor's widow Olga, offering her a marriage with
the Derevlian prince. In Kiev, however, instead of deal they
got death; also were killed envoys of the next embassy.
Princess Olga, ruling in the name of her adolescent son, was
not inclined to forgive, especially at such a price. In 946
she herself stood in van of a big band and led an expedition
against the Derevlians. The lands of the restless tribe were
put to sword and fire, their main city, Iskorosten, was burnt,
and thousands of people perished, including the unfortunate
groom. But Olga in her turn had also driven conclusions from
what had happened - the system of tributes and their
collection had been reformed to avoid a recurrence of such
troubles in the future.
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